Hypnosis involves the manipulation of conscious attentional discrimination. The prepulse inhibition (PPI) paradigm assesses primary unconscious information processing. We investigated the correlation between hypnotizability and PPI of the startle reflex. Forty-eight healthy subjects were evaluated with the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C) and acoustic PPI. Subjects were divided into low, medium, and high hypnotizable groups. The low-hypnotizable group showed a significantly higher inhibition of the startle response, at lead intervals 60 ms and 120 ms, than did the medium- and high-hypnotizable groups. We conclude that hypnotizability and PPI may be negatively correlated. These findings lend further support for the role of dopaminergic neurotransmission mechanisms in the determination of hypnotizability levels.

Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007 Nov 30;:1-5 Lichtenberg P, Even-Or E, Bar G, Levin R, Brin A, Heresco-Levy U. Hadassah Medical School of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.

A defensive dominant was created in rabbits using rhythmic electrocutaneous stimulation of the left forelimb at a frequency of 0.5 Hz. After stimulation ended, the latent excitation state was tested using sound stimuli. Animals responded either with increases in non-rhythmic paw muscle activity or with rhythmic twitching of the paw at a frequency close to that of the electrocutaneous stimulation. After hypnotization, the incidence of rhythmic responses to the stimulation testing the dominant focus increased, while the incidence of non-rhythmic responses decreased.

Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2008 Jan;38(1):23-30. Galashina AG, Kulikov MA, Bogdanov AV. Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, bogdav@mail.ru.

To provide an understanding of Hong Kong registered nurses' personal and professional use of complementary and alternative medicine. DESIGN. Cross-sectional questionnaire study. PARTICIPANTS. Registered nurses who were members of the Hong Kong College of Nursing were invited to participate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES. Demographic data of the respondents, prevalence of personal and professional use of complementary and alternative medicines, including their use for detailed clinical conditions. RESULTS. A total of 187 nurses participated in this study. Nearly four fifths (80%; 95% confidence interval, 74-86%) of the participants had used at least one form of complementary/alternative medicine. In addition to the personal use of such treatment, over two fifths (41%; 95% confidence interval, 34-48%) had recommended at least one form of complementary/alternative medicine to their patients. These included bone-setting (20%), Chinese remedial massage (tuina, 19%), and meditation (19%). Specifically, registered nurses recommended acupuncture or acupressure to patients with musculoskeletal disorders, chronic pain, or headaches/migraines. CONCLUSIONS. Personal use and professional recommendations for complementary and alternative medicine by registered nurses in Hong Kong is substantial. Registered nurses played an active role in advising such treatment for their patients based on their personal knowledge of perceived benefit in specific conditions. Further investigations with a larger sample size should focus on registered nurses' educational needs in respect of complementary and alternative medicine and the advice they recommended.

Hong Kong Med J. 2008 Apr;14(2):110-5. Xue CC, Zhang AL, Holroyd E, Suen LK. Division of Chinese Medicine, School of Health Sciences, The WHO Collaborating Centre for Traditional Medicine, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

Hypnosis is attempting to come to grips with the EST (Empirically Supported Therapy) revolution in mental health practice. However, there are ways to account for outcome outside of simple empirical validation of treatment models. In this light, strategic eclecticism as a broader research-based consideration is used to illustrate empirical principles within Eriksonian hypnotherapeutic approaches.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2008 Jan;50(3):233-45. Amundson JK, Nuttgens SA. Amundson & Associates, 1614 8th Avenue NW, Calgary. aapsych@telus.net

The relationship between metaphor and the practice of utilization in therapy and hypnosis can be seen as dependent on metaphor's role in structuring experience. The work of Gregory Bateson and others is used to illustrate how metaphor functions. Bateson's comparison of two forms of syllogistic logic provides a background for distinguishing between the experiential effects of metaphor in contrast to the categorical thinking inherent in simile and analogy. Clinical examples are given to demonstrate how utilization is structured by metaphor, particularly as Bateson has described it in his analysis of the Syllogism in Grass.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2008 Jan;50(3):247-57. Roffman AE. New York University, Child Study Center, 577 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA. roffma01@med.nyu.edu

Systemic contact dermatitis from nickel has been reported from a number of sources including medical devices and following experimental oral exposure. OBJECTIVE: To identify other potential sources of systemic nickel exposure. METHODS: The internet and published medical literature were searched for complementary and alternative remedies which contain nickel. RESULTS: We identified and evaluated sources of nickel exposure in 4 homeopathic preparations, which are advertised to treat common skin diseases, as well as in a number of other homeopathic remedies, several herbal products and multivitamin mineral complexes. CONCLUSION: Complementary and alternative remedies are an additional source of systemic nickel exposure and at highest doses the potential risk for systemic contact dermatitis in nickel allergic patients should be considered.

Contact Dermatitis. 2008 Feb;58(2):97-100. de Medeiros LM, Fransway AF, Taylor JS, Wyman M, Janes J, Fowler JF Jr, Rietschel RL. Section of Industrial Dermatology, Department of Dermatology (A-61), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA.

Provide an orientation to psychoneuroimmunology, a rationale for including assessments of immune function in intervention studies of pediatric chronic illness, review the current literature, and provide recommendations for future research. METHODS: Using electronic searches and previous reviews, selected and reviewed published studies in which immunological changes related to psychological interventions were assessed in pediatric samples. RESULTS: Eight studies were identified and included in the review. These utilized a range of interventions (e.g., disclosure and hypnosis) and included a variety of pediatric samples (e.g., those with asthma, HIV infection, or lupus). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that psychological intervention can influence immune function in pediatric samples. Recommendations for advancing our knowledge by studying populations for whom the immune system plays an active role in disease pathophysiology, measuring disease-relevant immune mediators, studying pediatric patients under times of stress, and focusing on interventions aimed at altering the stress system are provided.

J Pediatr Psychol. 2008 Mar;33(2):195-207. Epub 2007 Sep 10. Nassau JH, Tien K, Fritz GK. Bradley Hasbro Children's Research Center, CORO Center West - Suite 204, 1 Hoppin Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA. jack_nassau@brown.edu

Conventional suggestion-based tests of hypnotizability have been criticized because they confound hypnotic and nonhypnotic suggestibility. One way around this might be to measure hypnotizability in terms of differences in suggestibility before and after hypnotic induction. However, analysis of data from a 1966 classic study by Hilgard and Tart confirms that difference scores are subject to statistical and methodological problems. Simple verbal hypnotic depth scales are presented as a useful alternative. They correlate well with conventional suggestion-based measures and enable the presence of hypnosis to be indexed independently of formal hypnotic induction procedures. Criticisms of depth scales are addressed, and normative data for the Long Stanford Scale of hypnotic depth are presented, along with data lending empirical support for the construct validity of depth reports.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2008 Apr;56(2):119-42. Wagstaff GF, Cole JC, Brunas-Wagstaff J. University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.

This study assessed the relationship of age and hypnotic suggestibility in an effort to partially update the findings of Morgan and Hilgard (1973). A total of 2,660 undergraduates were administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (HGSHS:A; Shor & Orne, 1962) over a 7 year period. Consistent with Morgan and Hilgard's results, we found a general trend for hypnotic suggestibility scores to decrease from age 17 to 40, and then increase thereafter. We also found that female participants scored higher on the HGSHS: A compared with males across the various age ranges that we sampled.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Apr;49(4):283-7. Page RA, Green JP. Ohio State University, 4240 Campus Drive, Lima, Ohio 45804, USA. page.6@osu.edu

The placebo is much more than a control medicine in a clinical trial. The placebo response is the largest component of any allergy treatment and consists of two components: nonspecific effects (eg, natural recovery) and a "true placebo effect" that is the psychological therapeutic effect of the treatment. Belief in the beneficial nature of the treatment is a key component of the true placebo effect, and can be enhanced by factors such as interaction with the physician and the sensory impact of the treatment. Negative beliefs can generate a nocebo effect that may explain some psychogenic illnesses; this is the basis of much research in psychoneuroimmunology. An understanding of the placebo and nocebo effects is important for general allergy practice, and harnessing the power of the true placebo effect is a major challenge to modern medicine.

Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2007 May;7(2):100-4. Eccles R. Common Cold Centre, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3US, UK. eccles@cardiff.ac.uk

In a multistage experiment, twelve 4- and 9-year-old children participated in a triad rating task. Their ratings were mapped with multidimensional scaling,from which euclidean distances were computed to operationalize semantic distance between items in target pairs. These children and age-mates then participated in an experiment that employed these target pairs in a story, which was followed by a misinformation manipulation. Analyses linked individual and developmental differences in suggestibility to children's representations of the target items. Semantic proximity was a strong predictor of differences in suggestibility: The closer a suggested distractor was to the original item's representation, the greater was the distractor's suggestive influence. The triad participants' semantic proximity subsequently served as the basis for correctly predicting memory performance in the larger group. Semantic proximity enabled a priori counterintuitive predictions of reverse age-related trends to be confirmed whenever the distance between representations of items in a target pair was greater for younger than for older children.

Psychol Sci. 2007 Jun;18(6):503-9. Ceci SJ, Papierno PB, Kulkofsky S. Department of Human Development, Cornell University, NY 14853, USA. sjc9@cornell.edu

While hypnosis-like phenomena have a documented history going back thousands of years, accounts of placebo effects span several centuries. With the rise of biological psychiatry and the "pharmacological revolution," drug trials have taken a central place in clinical research. These clinical trials increasingly incorporate placebo-controlled conditions as part of their paradigms and may even involve an element of deception. In contrast, the therapeutic effects of hypnosis do not require deception. As researchers begin to identify genetic and neural correlates of hypnotizability, these findings may further elucidate placebo phenomena. Whereas identifying highly hypnotizable individuals may be of limited interest, identifying good placebo responders may revolutionize both basic research and clinical science, offer insights into transcultural psychiatry and elucidate individual differences.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Jul;50(1):29-36. Hypnobo: perspectives on hypnosis and placebo.Raz A. Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute.

Many skin disorders have a significant psychosomatic component. Focused history-taking coupled with hypnoanalysis using ideomotor finger signals to detect positive responses to one or more of 7 common triggering or exacerbating factors permits systematic diagnosis of the presence or absence of a significant psychosomatic component. If no factor is positive, a psychosomatic component to the skin disorder can likely be excluded. If one or two of the 7 factors are positive and it is possible to identify the initiating event, treatment by reframing with suggestions in hypnosis may succeed in defusing the associated negative emotional impact associated with the psychosomatic component of the skin disorder. This may be sufficient to uproot and weed out the problem.

However, if a multiple of the 7 factors are positive as in the included case report, referral to an appropriate psychotherapist is recommended.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Oct;50(2):131-6. Shenefelt PD. Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA. pshenefe@health.usf.edu

For many years Western Medicine has considered the immune system to be separate and independent from the central nervous system. However, significant scientific advances and research discoveries that occurred during the past 50 years have presented additional facts that the immune system does interact with the central nervous system with mutual influence. This article provides a systematic review of the literature on the connection between the brain and the immune system and its clinical implications. It then provides a rational foundation for the role of using hypnosis and imagery to therapeutically influence the immune system. Five case examples are provided with illustrated instructions for clinicians on how hypnosis and imagery may be utilized in the treatment of patients with auto-immune disorders. Suggestions for future research in this field are included.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Oct;50(2):157-70. Torem MS. North East Ohio Universities College of Medicine, USA. mtorem@agmc.org

Neuroscience and bioinformatics research on activity-dependent gene expression and brain plasticity in memory and learning are used to reconceptualize a fundamental question of therapeutic hypnosis, "What is a suggestion?" John Kihlstrom's cognitive-behavioral perspective of implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory and Eric Kandel's Nobel Prize winning neurobiological research are integrated for a 30-year update of Milton H. Erickson's "neuro-psycho-physiology" of therapeutic hypnosis. Implicit processing heuristics are proposed as a more general framework for Erickson's concept of permissive indirect suggestions in therapeutic hypnosis and psychotherapy. These perspectives are illustrated by utilizing implicit processing heuristics to facilitate the four-stage creative process in converting implicit to explicit memory in a brain-damaged patient.

Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Apr;49(4):267-81. Rossi EL, Rossi KL. Ernest@ErnestRossi.com

Context: Placebo and nocebo effects, the therapeutic and adverse effects, respectively, of inert substances or sham procedures, represent serious confounds in the evaluation of therapeutic interventions. They are also an example of cognitive processes, particularly expectations, capable of influencing physiology.

Objective: To examine the contribution of 2 different neurotransmitters, the endogenous opioid and the dopaminergic (DA) systems, to the development of placebo and nocebo effects.

Design and Setting: Using a within-subject design, subjects twice underwent a 20-minute standardized pain challenge, in the absence and presence of a placebo with expected analgesic properties. Studies were conducted in a university hospital setting.

Participants: Twenty healthy men and women aged 20 to 30 years recruited by advertisement.

Main Outcome Measures: Activation of DA and opioid neurotransmission by a pain stressor with and without placebo (changes in the binding potential of carbon 11 [11C]?labeled raclopride and [11C] carfentanil with positron emission tomography) and ratings of pain, affective state, and anticipation and perception of analgesia.

Results: Placebo-induced activation of opioid neurotransmission was detected in the anterior cingulate, orbitofrontal and insular cortices, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and periaqueductal gray matter. Dopaminergic activation was observed in the ventral basal ganglia, including the nucleus accumbens. Regional DA and opioid activity were associated with the anticipated and subjectively perceived effectiveness of the placebo and reductions in continuous pain ratings. High placebo responses were associated with greater DA and opioid activity in the nucleus accumbens. Nocebo responses were associated with a deactivation of DA and opioid release. Nucleus accumbens DA release accounted for 25% of the variance in placebo analgesic effects.

Conclusions: Placebo and nocebo effects are associated with opposite responses of DA and endogenous opioid neurotransmission in a distributed network of regions. The brain areas involved in these phenomena form part of the circuit typically implicated in reward responses and motivated behavior.

David J. Scott, BS; Christian S. Stohler, DDS, PhD; Christine M. Egnatuk, BS; Heng Wang, PhD; Robert A. Koeppe, PhD; Jon-Kar Zubieta, MD, PhD Author Affiliations: Department of Psychiatry and Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute (Mr Scott, Ms Egnatuk, and Drs Wang and Zubieta) and Department of Radiology (Drs Koeppe and Zubieta), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; and School of Dentistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore (Dr Stohler).

By Wil Horton, Psy. D. CAC CMI

As a hypnotist I am constantly working with clients who want to lose weight and get in shape. With this in mind I want you to have a good working knowledge of what a good program for lifestyle changes and physical fitness is all about. It is not to say that we need to become personal trainers, but we need to be able to understand the basics, so we can communicate this to our clients.

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The objective of this study was to correlate computer-generated imagery tasks and a self-report measure of imagery ability with hypnotizability, hypothesizing that computer-generated imagery tasks would be better predictors of hypnotizability than will the self-report measure. Hypnotizability of 43 subjects was assessed using the Hypnotic Induction Profile and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C. Imagery ability was assessed by the Visual Vividness Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) and by computer-generated imagery tasks measuring the ability to generate, maintain, and transform images. Although there was no correlation between the VVIQ and hypnotizability, the less hypnotizable subjects made twice as many mistakes in the spatial imagery tasks than did the more hypnotizables, but this difference was not statistically significant. The relationships among hypnotic performance, hypnotizability, and imagery functions are complex.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1998 Oct;46(4):363-70. Kogon MM, Jasiukaitis P, Berardi A, Gupta M, Kosslyn SM, Spiegel D. Stanford University, USA.

Two studies investigated the relationship between mental imagery and hypnotizability, with the imagery measures administered in a hypnotic context. The correlation of hypnotizability with vividness of imagery was significant in one study, but not in the other; both correlations were significantly lower than that obtained between hypnotizability and absorption, assessed in the same samples. The correlations with control of visual imagery, and with various measures of the vividness of motor imagery, were even lower and rarely significant. Except for an aggregate index of motor imagery, a search for significant nonlinear relationships with hypnotizability yielded nothing that was consistent across studies. Future studies of imagery and hypnotizability should make use of better measures of vividness of mental imagery and consider the relevance of aspects of imagery other than vividness.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1995 Jan;43(1):34-54. Glisky ML, Tataryn DJ, Kihlstrom JF. University of Arizona, Tucson.

Little data is available on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use in children attending otolaryngology services. We investigated the prevalence and pattern of CAM use among children attending the pediatric otolaryngology department in a tertiary pediatric teaching hospital in Scotland. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey conducted by administering an anonymous questionnaire to the parents accompanying patients attending the pediatric otolaryngology department. Elective admissions and clinic attendees were included over a 3-month period in 2005/2006. SETTING: Academic tertiary care referral centre in North-East Scotland. PATIENTS: Five hundred and fifty-four consecutive patients aged less than 16 years were eligible. The response rate was 59% (n=327). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of CAM use in children. Secondary measures include types of CAM used, indications for use and communication with family physicians. RESULTS: Based on 327 responses, 93 patients (29%) had ever used CAM, 20% within the last year. Commonly used CAM preparations were cod-liver oil, echinacea, aloe vera, cranberry, primrose oil and herbal vitamin supplements. The popular non-herbal CAM included homeopathy, massage, aromatherapy, chiropractic, yoga and reiki. Nineteen percent used CAM for their admission illness. Sixty-one percent of parents thought that CAM was effective and 65% would recommend it to others. Fifty-one percent of parents stated that the family physician was unaware of CAM use by the child. CONCLUSIONS: Despite concerns regarding the efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine, its use among the pediatric otolaryngology population is more common than many providers may realize. This has implications for all healthcare workers involved in their care.

Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007 Nov;71(11):1725-30. Shakeel M, Little SA, Bruce J, Ah-See KW. Department of Otolaryngology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen AB25 2ZN, Scotland, UK. drshakeel@doctors.org.uk

This study examined correlates of hypnotizability in children that had previously been reported for adults. Forty-two children (ages 7-14) completed the Fantasy Questionnaire (FQ), the Children's Social Desirability Questionnaire (CSDQ), the Zelter and LeBaron (1984) revision of the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale for Children (SHCS:C-R), and the Children's Fantasy Inventory: Absorption and Vividness Scales (CFI: A & V). The nine-item SHCS:C-R yields separate scores for Observed Behavior (OB), and Realness (R), as well as a Total Score (TS). Results indicated significant correlations between SHCS:C-R scores and those for CFI: A & V, and the FQ (r = .42-.53) but not for the CSDQ. On the SHCS:C-R, correlations between R (involuntariness) scores and the above measures were not appreciably different from those found for OB scores. Observations suggested that attitudes towards hypnosis may influence children's hypnotic responsiveness.

Am J Clin Hypn. 1991 Jul;34(1):51-8. Plotnick AB, Payne PA, O'Grady DJ. University of Cincinnati, OH 45221.

Deciding how to choose from opposing options often seriously impacts people's final selections. Such constraining options are frequently associated with feelings of hopelessness, depression, or chronic pain. As an example of such situations, a model is presented with material from a single case that utilized previous contradictory experiences in the treatment of a woman patient who suffers from chronic pelvic pain. The case summarizes how previous experiences, which have been paradoxical, can serve as substrates of behavioral change, which in turn can emerge in a way that allows the patient to integrate these experiences, personally and slowly, without conscious effort.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2008 Oct;56(4):373-83. Tschugguel W, Hunter ME. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria. walter.tschugguel@meduniwien.ac.at

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use by Australians is substantial and increasing, but little is known about its use by the elderly. We here present the findings for the elderly cohort in our recently conducted national survey on CAM use by adult Australians. In May and June 2005, computer-assisted telephone interviews, using random-digit telephone dialing, were employed to gather data on CAM use in the last 12 months. Of 1067 adult participants interviewed, 178 were 65 or older. More than half of these (57.8%; 95% CI, 50.7%-64.9%) had used at least one of 17 common forms of CAM and 60.4% of the CAM users had consulted CAM practitioners. Clinical nutrition, chiropractic, massage therapy, meditation, and herbal medicine were the most common forms of CAM used by the elderly. A higher proportion of the elderly had always used both CAM and conventional medical treatments (37.9%) than had those aged 18-34 (15.7%) and 35-64 (26.9%). Elderly CAM users (60.2%) were more likely than younger users to discuss their use with their doctors. Of those who did not do so, 24.1% were not asked by their doctors and 16.0% considered that their doctor would disapprove. In conclusion, we found that a substantial proportion of older Australians use CAM. The elderly are also more likely than younger adults to discuss their use of CAM with their doctors, but doctors need to play a more active role in initiating such communication.

Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007 Oct;1114:204-15. Zhang AL, Xue CC, Lin V, Story DF. Division of Chinese Medicine, School of Health Sciences, RMIT University, P.O. Box 71, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia. tony.zhang@rmit.edu.au

The present study evaluated the so-called fantasy prone personality by selecting subjects who ranged along the continuum of fantasy proneness and then administering measures designed to assess hypnotic susceptibility (Harvard Group Scale, HGSHS:A; Shor & Orne, 1962), absorption (Tellegen Absorption Scale; Tellegen, 1976), vividness of mental imagery (QMI; Sheehan, 1967), response to waking suggestion (Creative Imagination Scale; Wilson & Barber, 1978), creativity (Barron Welsh Art Scale; Barron & Welsh, 1952), and social desirability (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). Fantasy-prone (N = 23; upper 4% of college population), medium range (N = 22), and nonfantasy-prone persons (N = 17; lower 4% of population), were selected using the Inventory of Childhood Memories and Imaginings (Wilson & Barber, 1981). Strong support was secured for J. R. Hilgard's construct of imaginative involvement and Wilson and Barber's contention that fantasy prone persons can be distinguished from others in terms of fantasy and related cognitive processes. Fantasizers were found to outscore subjects in both comparison groups on all of the measures of fantasy, imagination, and creativity, with social desirability used as a covariate. Low fantasy-prone subjects were no less creative or less responsive to hypnosis than their medium fantasy-prone counterparts.

J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986 Aug;51(2):404-8. Lynn SJ, Rhue JW.

The revised form of the Absorption Scale extracted from Tellegen's Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Tellegen, 1981; Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974) and the Short Imaginal Processes Inventory (Huba, Aneshensel, & Singer, 1981), a self-report questionnaire concerned with daydreaming activity, were administered to 2 samples of Ss (N = 479, N = 476), who also received the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962). In both samples, hypnotizability was significantly correlated with absorption (average r = .24) and with a subscale measuring positive-constructive daydreaming (average r = .13). Absorption and positive-constructive daydreaming were also highly correlated (average r = .57). Of the subscales of the positive-constructive daydreaming scale, only those relating to positive reactions to daydreaming, and problem solving in daydreaming, consistently correlated with hypnotizability. Daydreaming and absorption each share some features in common with hypnosis, but they appear to have more in common with each other.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1989 Oct;37(4):332-42. Hoyt IP, Nadon R, Register PA, Chorny J, Fleeson W, Grigorian EM, Otto L, Kihlstrom JF.

This study examined the relationship of 15 trait (e.g., absorption, ego-permissiveness) and 21 phenomenological variables (assessed by the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory) with performance on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. Factor analyses suggested three trait factors (absorption-permissiveness, general sensation seeking, and social desirability) and five state factors (dissociated control state, positive affect, negative affect, attention to internal processes, and visual imagery). The factors correlated to hypnotizability were absorption-permissiveness, dissociated control, positive affect, and attention to internal processes. In predicting hypnotizability, the amount of variance accounted for by the trait factors was approximately 9%; an additional 22% was accounted for by state factors. The interactions did not account for any additional variance in predicting hypnotizability.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1996 Jul;44(3):232-49. Kumar VK, Pekala RJ, Cummings J. Department of Psychology, West Chester University, PA 19383, USA.

The aim of the study was to determine the clinical and perceived effectiveness of the Sunflower therapy in the treatment of childhood dyslexia. The Sunflower therapy includes applied kinesiology, physical manipulation, massage, homeopathy, herbal remedies and neuro-linguistic programming. A multi-centred, randomised controlled trial was undertaken with 70 dyslexic children aged 6-13 years. The research study aimed to test the research hypothesis that dyslexic children 'feel better' and 'perform better' as a result of treatment by the Sunflower therapy. Children in the treatment group and the control group were assessed using a battery of standardised cognitive, Literacy and self-esteem tests before and after the intervention. Parents of children in the treatment group gave feedback on their experience of the Sunflower therapy. Test scores were compared using the Mann Whitney, and Wilcoxon statistical tests. While both groups of children improved in some of their test scores over time, there were no statistically significant improvements in cognitive or Literacy test performance associated with the treatment. However, there were statistically significant improvements in academic self-esteem, and reading self-esteem, for the treatment group. The majority of parents (57.13%) felt that the Sunflower therapy was effective in the treatment of learning difficulties. Further research is required to verify these findings, and should include a control group receiving a dummy treatment to exclude placebo effects.

Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2007 Feb;13(1):15-24. Epub 2006 Dec 15. Bull L. Department of Education, Brunel University, Twickenham, TW1 1PT, UK. leona@mail.com

Absorption, a correlate of hypnotizability, is related to a broader dimension of openness to experience, one construal of the "Big Five" structure of personality. But openness itself is very heterogeneous, and some of its facets may be unrelated to hypnotizability. A total of 651 subjects completed a questionnaire measuring three different aspects of openness--absorption, intellectance, and liberalism--before receiving the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. The three dimensions were only modestly related to each other, and only absorption was significantly related to hypnotizability. Adding intellectance and liberalism to absorption did not enhance the prediction of hypnotizability. The results indicate that the various facets of openness are rather different from each other and that the "Big Five" structure may need to be expanded. Absorption and hypnosis share a kind of imaginative involvement that is not necessarily part of other kinds of openness, such as intellectance and liberalism.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1993 Apr;41(2):112-23., Glisky ML, Kihlstrom JF. Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1993 Apr;41(2):112-23. Glisky ML, Kihlstrom JF. Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721.

We determined the prevalence and correlates of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use among patients with bipolar disorder. Methods: Patients with bipolar disorder recruited from a large urban mental health facility from 2004 to 2006 completed a baseline questionnaire on CAM use, demographics, treatment perspectives, and behaviors. Additional data on current medications and clinical features were ascertained via chart review. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the patient sociodemographic, clinical, and treatment factors associated with use of different CAM practices. Results: Of 435 patients, the mean age was 49 years; 77% were white, 13% were black, and 10% other race/ethnicity. Patients reported a wide range of CAM use, including prayer/spiritual healing (54%), meditation (53%), vitamins or herbs (50%), and weight loss supplements (22%). Multivariable analyses controlling for sociodemographic, clinical, and treatment factors revealed that patients of other racial/ethnic groups (other than whites or Blacks), those diagnosed with bipolar spectrum disorders (other than bipolar I disorder), and those prescribed anticonvulsants (eg, valproic acid, carbamazepine), or atypical antipsychotics were most likely to use CAM. Conclusions: A substantial number of patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder is using CAM. CAM use may be popular among patients with this illness because conventional pharmacotherapy for managing bipolar symptoms can also disrupt quality of life. Mental health providers should be aware of CAM use among patients with bipolar disorder and assess the potential impact of CAM use on treatment course.

Psychopharmacol Bull. 2007;40(3):104-15. Kilbourne AM, Copeland LA, Zeber JE, Bauer MS, Lasky E, Good CB. VA Ann Arbor National Serious Mental Illness Treatment Research and Evaluation Center and University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor, MI.

Examination of the absorption (Tellegen Absorption Scale [TAS] of Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974), openness to experience (OTE Inventory of Costa & McCrae, 1978), and anhedonia (ANH Scales of L. J. Chapman, J.P. Chapman, & Raulin, 1976) scales suggested that they might be conceptually related. Given the reliable relationship between TAS and hypnotic susceptibility, the authors were interested in studying OTE and ANH as possible personality correlates of hypnotic susceptibility. 2 studies, 1 involving a community sample and the other a sample of university students, were conducted to assess the relationships between the TAS, OTE, and ANH scales and hypnotic susceptibility. As predicted, in Study 1 (community sample) the TAS and OTE inventories were positively correlated with one another and both were negatively correlated with the ANH scale. This pattern of correlations was replicated in Study 2 (university sample), but only TAS correlated significantly with hypnotic susceptibility. Factor analyses further confirmed these findings. It was concluded that the conceptual relationship among the TAS and the OTE and ANH scales resides in some dimension other than hypnotic susceptibility.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1991 Jan;39(1):39-56., Radtke HL, Stam HJ., Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

In 25 male and 31 female university student and staff volunteers, the interrelationships between the following measures were studied: hypnotic susceptibility (Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Forms A and C), imagery vividness (Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire; VVIQ), involvement in everyday activities (Tellegen Absorption Scale; TAS), and daydreaming styles (28 scales of Singer & Antrobus's Imaginal Processes Inventory). Factor analysis produced a factor characterized as a positively vivid and absorptive imagination style. Hypnotic susceptibility, VVIQ, TAS, and positive-affect daydreaming styles all loaded on this factor. Two other factors were a dysphoric daydreaming style and a lack-of-attentional-control style. Stepwise multiple regressions suggested that males and females, at least within this sample, exhibit different relationships between hypnotic susceptibility and predictor variables. Similar differences were found for the VVIQ and the TAS and their daydreaming-scale predictor variables.

J Pers Soc Psychol. 1982 May;42(5):915-26., Crawford HJ.

30 volunteer Ss practiced self-hypnosis for approximately 4 weeks and wrote a record of their experiences in a diary following each session. Imagery produced during self-hypnosis was coded in 2 ways: the imagery was either reality oriented or it was fantastic and had primary process qualities. Levels of imagery production remained virtually the same over a 4-week period. Self-hypnotic imagery was significantly greater for the female Ss than for the male Ss, particularly primary process imagery. Verbal expressivity (measured as the average number of words per page of each S diary) was calculated to control for the effects of verbal production on Ss' imagery scores. When imagery scores were standardized based on verbal expressivity, female Ss still produced significantly more primary process imagery than male Ss. Personality characteristics (assessed by standardized personality inventories) were examined in relation to self-hypnotic imagery. "Impulse Expression" was positively related to primary process imagery for the female Ss. "Outgoingness" was positively related to primary process imagery for the entire sample, but especially for the female Ss.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1990 Jan;38(1):25-38. Lombard LS, Kahn SP, Fromm E. Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, IL 60637.

The relationship of self-reports of hypnotic depth obtained during self-hypnosis to hypnotizability and to the kinds of imagery produced during self-hypnosis is investigated. The sample consisted of 22 highly hypnotizable Ss who practiced self-hypnosis in 1-hour daily sessions for 4 weeks and kept daily journals in which they detailed the contents of their self-hypnosis experiences. The journals were coded for imagery production by scoring for both reality-oriented and primary process imagery. Ss had been taught to monitor their hypnotic depth using a slightly revised version of the Extended North Carolina Scale (ENCS) of Tart (1979). Previously, ENCS has been used only with heterohypnotic Ss. The self-reports of depth using ENCS correlated highly with hypnotizability as measured by the Revised Stanford Profile Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Form I of Weitzenhoffer and Hilgard (1967) and with imagery production. Results demonstrate that ENCS scores are also a valid indicator of self-hypnotic depth among highly hypnotizable Ss. Furthermore, they indicate that both hetero-hypnotizability and imagery production are related to self-hypnotic depth, but that the association between imagery and hypnotizability is due to their individual relationships to self-hypnotic depth.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1989 Oct;37(4):290-304., Kahn SP, Fromm E, Lombard LS, Sossi M.

17 research psychologists, identified as reflecting state or nonstate theoretical positions regarding hypnosis, were requested to provide anonymous information about their personal hypnosis test scores. There were no differences between the state and nonstate groups in mean scores on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962) or the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962), and no differences in the numbers who reported that they used hypnotherapy to treat patients. Small sample size suggests caution in interpretation of the present results, but it appears that commitment to a state or nonstate theory is not necessarily related to the hypnosis researcher's personal experience with hypnosis.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1989 Jul;37(3):189-91. Holroyd J.

The Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C), developed and named 37 years ago, is arguably the "gold standard" of hypnotic susceptibility scales. However, it has been the impression of several researchers that means obtained on the SHSS:C are higher now than in previous years. The authors comprehensively review studies using the SHSS:C over a 4-decade period. The findings demonstrate a significant linear trend between year and SHSS:C scores, with higher obtained means in more recent work. The authors also report a similar analysis of research with the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. Although the mechanisms underlying this trend can only be speculated upon at present, these findings underscore the importance of using local control groups in research on hypnotizability.

Benham G, Smith N, Nash MR. Department of Psychology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville 37996-0900, USA. britpsyc@utk.edu

According to the mental-state reasoning model of suggestibility, 2 components of theory of mind mediate reductions in suggestibility across the preschool years. The authors examined whether theory-of-mind performance may be legitimately separated into 2 components and explored the memory processes underlying the associations between theory of mind and suggestibility, independent of verbal ability. Children 3 to 6 years old completed 6 theory-of-mind tasks and a postevent misinformation procedure. Contrary to the model's prediction, a single latent theory-of-mind factor emerged, suggesting a single-component rather than a dual-component conceptualization of theory-of-mind performance. This factor provided statistical justification for computing a single composite theory-of-mind score. Improvements in theory of mind predicted reductions in suggestibility, independent of verbal ability (Study 1, n = 72). Furthermore, once attribution biases were controlled (Study 2, n = 45), there was also a positive relationship between theory of mind and source memory, but not recognition performance. The findings suggest a substantial, and possibly causal, association between theory-of-mind development and resistance to suggestion, driven specifically by improvements in source monitoring.

Dev Psychol. 2008 Jul;44(4):1055-68. Bright-Paul A, Jarrold C, Wright DB. Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK. a.m.bright-paul@bristol.ac.uk

Following the administration of a Hungarian translation of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C), 104 Hungarian subjects completed the Hungarian translation of the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI). Subjects had also been administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (HGSHS:A) about 1 week to 2 months before the SHSS:C. The pattern of correlations between hypnotizability (as measured by the HGSHS:A and the SHSS:C) and the 5 factors of the PCI was quite similar to that of previous work carried out using the English language versions on subjects in the United States. SHSS:C and HGSHS:A scores correlated significantly with the PCI factors of dissociated control, positive affect, and attention to internal processes factors. In addition, the SHSS:C score correlated significantly with the visual imagery factor, as found in previous work.

Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2001 Jan;49(1):19-29. Varga K, Józsa E, Bányai EI, Gösi-Greguss AC, Kumar VK. Eötvös Loránd University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Budapest 64, Pf. 4. Izabella utca 46., H-1378 Hungary/Europe. vakata@izabell.elte.hu

Participants (N = 206) experienced 15-min of monotonous drumming either before or after hypnosis (Harvard scale). Participants completed the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI) in reference to the last 4-min of drumming. Stimulus order did not affect the objective trance levels as measured by the Harvard scores. The subjective trance level as measured by hypnoidal scores (predicted Harvard scores from the PCI) was significantly higher when drumming preceded hypnosis. Participants' estimated average trance level achieved during drumming fell in the medium range of susceptibility (5-8) (Pekala, 1995). Participants who achieved higher hypnoidal and Harvard scores were more likely to report relaxed feelings and shamanic-type experiences in narratives about their subjective experiences during drumming.

Am J Clin Hypn. 1997 Oct;40(2):130-45. Maurer RL Sr, Kumar VK, Woodside L, Pekala RJ. Department of Psychology, West Chester University, PA 19383, USA.

Anatomical and physiological understandings of the structure and function of the brain have worked to establish it as the "seat of the soul." As an organ of reflection, meditation, and memory, the brain becomes synonymous with what defines the "self" through the existence of consciousness--of mind. Thus, the brain has been associated with a range of transcendent concepts--the soul, spirit, mind, and consciousness--that all relate in fundamental ways to each other both in terms of their perceived location within the brain and because of the way each works ultimately to define the person to whom the brain belongs. In this article, the author provides a brief exploration of how interrelated these categories have been when seen in the context of ancient, Renaissance, early modern, and modern philosophical and medical concerns; how the brain has variously been perceived as home to these intimate states of being; and how practitioners from the neurosciences have reflected on these questions. The author provides novel insights into the interrelationships of philosophy, theology, and medicine by examining these issues through the lens of the history of neuroscience.

Neurosurg Focus. 2007;23(1):E2. Dolan B. University of California, San Francisco, California, USA. dolanb@dahsm.ucsf.edu

A defensive dominant was created in rabbits using rhythmic electrocutaneous stimulation of the left forelimb at a frequency of 0.5 Hz. After stimulation ended, the latent excitation state was tested using sound stimuli. Animals responded either with increases in non-rhythmic paw muscle activity or with rhythmic twitching of the paw at a frequency close to that of the electrocutaneous stimulation. After hypnotization, the incidence of rhythmic responses to the stimulation testing the dominant focus increased, while the incidence of non-rhythmic responses decreased.

Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2008 Jan;38(1):23-30. Galashina AG, Kulikov MA, Bogdanov AV. Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, bogdav@mail.ru.