The self-paced control paradigm enables users to operate brain-computer interfaces (BCI) in a more natural way: no longer is the machine in control of the timing and speed of communication, but rather the user is. This is important to enhance the usability, flexibility, and response time of a BCI. In this work, we show how subjects, after performing cue-based feedback training (smiley paradigm), learned to navigate self-paced through the "freeSpace" virtual environment (VE). Similar to computer games, subjects had the task of picking up items by using the following navigation commands: rotate left, rotate right, and move forward ( three classes). Since the self-paced control paradigm allows subjects to make voluntary decisions on time, type, and duration of mental activity, no cues or routing directives were presented. The BCI was based only on three bipolar electroencephalogram channels and operated by motor imagery. Eye movements (electrooculogram) and electromyographic artifacts were reduced and detected online. The results of three able-bodied subjects are reported and problems emerging from self-paced control are discussed.

IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2008 Feb;55(2):675-82. Scherer R, Lee F, Schlogl A, Leeb R, Bischof H, Pfurtscheller G. Laboratory of Brain-Computer Interfaces, Institute for Knowledge Discovery, Graz University of Technology, Graz 8010, Austria. reinhold.scherer@tugraz.at

The effects of alpha-neurofeedback (ANF) on electroencephalographic alpha-activity were investigated. Each session consisted of a 2.5-min eye-opened state and 17.5-min of ANF, which was divided into 16 1.25-min bins. Alpha amplitudes were gradually increased as the session was repeated. The maximum value at the start of ANF gradually decreased as time passed, but the slowdown of alpha-activity during each session was decreased as the session was repeated. The correlation between alpha-activity at the end of ANF and at the following session's eye-opened state was highly significant. These results showed that ANF enhances the ability of alpha-activity to maintain itself rather than the increase of alpha-amplitude during intrasession and that the maintained alpha-activity during former training remained until the next session.

Neuroreport. 2008 Feb 12;19(3):315-7. Cho MK, Jang HS, Jeong SH, Jang IS, Choi BJ, Lee MG. Department of Pharmacology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.

EEG Biofeedback (Neurofeedback-NFB) is a learning strategy that enables people to alter their brainwaves. In the present case study, we applied a NFB protocol on three patients with Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS). The existing symptoms and clinical conditions of the patients attributed to FMS, Visual Analog Scale for pain and fatigue, Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Inventory Scales, Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventory Scales, and SF-36 were recorded before and after NFB training. Most of the symptoms were decreased after ten sessions. There was also improvement in all of the scales after the treatment. The results of the present study may suggest NFB training as a novel treatment method in FMS.

Agri. 2007 Jul;19(3):47-53. Kay?ran S, Dursun E, Ermutlu N, Dursun N, Karamürsel S. Kocaeli University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Kocaeli, Turkey.

Muscle and eye movement artifacts are very prominent in the ictal EEG of patients suffering from epilepsy, thus making the dipole localization of ictal activity very unreliable. Recently, two techniques (BSS-CCA and pSVD) were developed to remove those artifacts. The purpose of this study is to assess whether the removal of muscle and eye movement artifacts improves the EEG dipole source localization. We used a total of 8 EEG fragments, each from another patient, first unfiltered, then filtered by the BSS-CCA and pSVD. In both the filtered and unfiltered EEG fragments we estimated multiple dipoles using RAP-MUSIC. The resulting dipoles were subjected to a K-means clustering algorithm, to extract the most prominent cluster. We found that the removal of muscle and eye artifact results to tighter and more clear dipole clusters. Furthermore, we found that localization of the filtered EEG corresponded with the localization derived from the ictal SPECT in 7 of the 8 patients. Therefore, we can conclude that the BSS-CCA and pSVD improve localization of ictal activity, thus making the localization more reliable for the presurgical evaluation of the patient.

Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2006;1:1002-5. Hallez H, Vergult A, Phlypo R, Van Hese P, De Clercq W, D'Asseler Y, Van de Walle R, Vanrumste B, Van Paesschen W, Van Huffel S, Lemahieu I. Dept. of Electron. & Inf. Syst., Ghent Univ.

by Jonathan D. Cowan, Ph.D.

(This is an abstract from an article which appeared in Subtle Energies & Energy Medicine Volume Seventeen, Number Two)

This paper proposes a new understanding of the relationship between brain, mind and other biofields based in the emergent properties of the brain's parallel structure, which creates a brain "laser." Several thalamocoritical rhythms, including a 40 cycle per second oscillation associated with event scanning and a faster EEG rhythm found in healers and others, are hypothesized to give rise to coherent electromagnetic radiation, as well as multifaceted coherent radiation in the additional dimensions posited by string theory. These rhythms cause repetitive excitation of the sugar/protein coatings of the parallel axons of the thalamocoratical columns. The synchronous excitation of these glycocalyxes of the parallel columns will cause similar chemical bonds to resonate and entrain one another, giving rise to coherent radiation. This electromagnetic/multifaceted radiation forms highly complex interference patterns (termed "mentaholomorphic fields") when they interact with each other and the electromagnetic/multifaceted activity in the cortical layers. The resulting mentaholomorphic fields may be related to thought, mind and particular sates of consciousness.

Jonathan D. Cowan, Ph.D. Peak Achievement Training 1103 Hollendale Way. Goshen, KY 40026 jon@peakachievement.com

Hypnosis has been shown to be efficacious in a range of clinical conditions, including the management of chronic pain. However, not all individuals are able to enter a hypnotic state, thereby limiting the clinical utility of this technique. We sought to determine whether hypnotic susceptibility could be increased using three methods thought to facilitate relaxation, with particular interest in an EEG neurofeedback protocol which elevated the theta to alpha ratio. This was compared with progressive muscle relaxation and self-hypnosis. Ten subjects with moderate levels of susceptibility (2-7/12) were randomly assigned to each condition and assessed for hypnotic susceptibility prior to and upon completion of 10 sessions of training. Hypnotic susceptibility increased post-training in all groups, providing further evidence that operant control over the theta/alpha ratio is possible, but contrary to our predictions, elevation of the theta/alpha ratio proved no more successful than the other interventions. Nonetheless, all three techniques successfully enhanced hypnotic susceptibility in over half of the participants (17/30), a similar incidence to that reported using other methods. As previously reported, the majority who were not susceptible to modification were at the lower levels of susceptibility, and the greater increases tended to occur in the more susceptible subjects. However, here enhancement was disclosed in some at low levels, and capability was found of reaching high levels, both features not typically reported. Further research is warranted.

Brain Res Bull. 2006 Dec 11;71(1-3):83-90. Batty MJ, Bonnington S, Tang BK, Hawken MB, Gruzelier JH. Imperial College, London W6 8RP, UK.

Two high resolution methods solving inverse problems potentially ill-posed, named 4-MUSIC and 4-RapMUSIC, are proposed. They allow for localization of brain current sources with unconstrained orientations from surface electro-or magneto-encephalographic data using spherical or realistic head geometries. The 4-MUSIC and 4-RapMUSIC methods are based on i) the separability of the data transfer matrix as a function of location and orientation parameters and ii) the fourth order (FO) virtual array theory. In addition, 4-RapMUSIC uses the deflation concept extended to FO statistics accounting for the presence of potentially but not totally coherent sources. Computer results display the superiority of the 4-RapMUSIC approach in different situations (two closed sources, additive Gaussian noise with unknown spatial covariance, ...) especially over classical algorithms.

Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2006;1:4498-501. Albera L, Ferreol A, Cosandier-Rimele D, Merlet I, Wendling F. Lab. Traitement du Signal et de 1'Image, Rennes I Univ.

This paper attempts to make use of brain computer interface (BCI) in implementing an application called the media communication center for the paralyzed people. The application is based on the event-related potential called P300 to perform button selections on media and communication programs such as the mp3 player, video player, photo gallery and e-book. One of the key issues in such system is the usability. We study how various tasks affect the application operation, in particular, how typical mental activities cause false trigger during the operation of the application. We study the false acceptance rate under the conditions of closing eyes, reading a book, listening to music and watching a video. Data from 5 subjects is used to obtain the false rejection rate and false acceptance rate of the BCI system. Our study shows that different mental activities show different impacts on the false acceptance performances.

Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2006;1:2954-7. Teo E, Huang A, Lian Y, Guan C, Li Y, Zhang H. Nat. Univ. of Singapore.

A previous design of a biofeedback system for Neurorehabilitation in an interactive multimodal environment has demonstrated the potential of engaging stroke patients in task-oriented neuromotor rehabilitation. This report explores the new concept and alternative designs of multimedia based biofeedback systems. In this system, the new interactive multimodal environment was constructed with abstract presentation of movement parameters. Scenery images or pictures and their clarity and orientation are used to reflect the arm movement and relative position to the target instead of the animated arm. The multiple biofeedback parameters were classified into different hierarchical levels w.r.t. importance of each movement parameter to performance. A new quantified measurement for these parameters were developed to assess the patient's performance both real-time and offline. These parameters were represented by combined visual and auditory presentations with various distinct music instruments. Overall, the objective of newly designed system is to explore what information and how to feedback information in interactive virtual environment could enhance the sensorimotor integration that may facilitate the efficient design and application of virtual environment based therapeutic intervention.

Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2006;1:4925-8. Huang H, Chen Y, Xu W, Sundaram H, Olson L, Ingalls T, Rikakis T, He J. Harrington Dept. of Bioeng., Biodesign Inst., Tempe, AZ.

Hypnosis has been shown to be efficacious in a range of clinical conditions, including the management of chronic pain. However, not all individuals are able to enter a hypnotic state, thereby limiting the clinical utility of this technique. We sought to determine whether hypnotic susceptibility could be increased using three methods thought to facilitate relaxation, with particular interest in an EEG neurofeedback protocol which elevated the theta to alpha ratio. This was compared with progressive muscle relaxation and self-hypnosis. Ten subjects with moderate levels of susceptibility (2-7/12) were randomly assigned to each condition and assessed for hypnotic susceptibility prior to and upon completion of 10 sessions of training. Hypnotic susceptibility increased post-training in all groups, providing further evidence that operant control over the theta/alpha ratio is possible, but contrary to our predictions, elevation of the theta/alpha ratio proved no more successful than the other interventions. Nonetheless, all three techniques successfully enhanced hypnotic susceptibility in over half of the participants (17/30), a similar incidence to that reported using other methods. As previously reported, the majority who were not susceptible to modification were at the lower levels of susceptibility, and the greater increases tended to occur in the more susceptible subjects. However, here enhancement was disclosed in some at low levels, and capability was found of reaching high levels, both features not typically reported. Further research is warranted.

Brain Res Bull. 2006 Dec 11;71(1-3):83-90. Epub 2006 Sep 1.

Batty MJ, Bonnington S, Tang BK, Hawken MB, Gruzelier JH.

Imperial College, London W6 8RP, UK.

BACKGROUND: Neurofeedback (NF) is a form of behavioural training aimed at developing skills for self-regulation of brain activity. Within the past decade, several NF studies have been published that tend to overcome the methodological shortcomings of earlier studies. This annotation describes the methodical basis of NF and reviews the evidence base for its clinical efficacy and effectiveness in neuropsychiatric disorders. METHODS: In NF training, self-regulation of specific aspects of electrical brain activity is acquired by means of immediate feedback and positive reinforcement. In frequency training, activity in different EEG frequency bands has to be decreased or increased. Training of slow cortical potentials (SCPs) addresses the regulation of cortical excitability. RESULTS: NF studies revealed paradigm-specific effects on, e.g., attention and memory processes and performance improvements in real-life conditions, in healthy subjects as well as in patients. In several studies it was shown that children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) improved behavioural and cognitive variables after frequency (e.g., theta/beta) training or SCP training. Neurophysiological effects could also be measured. However, specific and unspecific training effects could not be disentangled in these studies. For drug-resistant patients with epilepsy, significant and long-lasting decreases of seizure frequency and intensity through SCP training were documented in a series of studies. For other child psychiatric disorders (e.g., tic disorders, anxiety, and autism) only preliminary investigations are available. CONCLUSIONS: There is growing evidence for NF as a valuable treatment module in neuropsychiatric disorders. Further, controlled studies are necessary to establish clinical efficacy and effectiveness and to learn more about the mechanisms underlying successful training.

J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007 Jan;48(1):3-16.

Heinrich H, Gevensleben H, Strehl U.

Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany. hheinri@arcor.de

Neurofeedback (NF) is an electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback technique for training individuals to alter their brain activity via operant conditioning. Research has shown that NF helps reduce symptoms of several neurological and psychiatric disorders, with ongoing research currently investigating applications to other disorders and to the enhancement of non-disordered cognition. The present article briefly reviews the fundamentals and current status of NF therapy and research and illustrates the basic approach with an interim report on a pilot study aimed at developing a new NF protocol for improving cognitive function in the elderly. EEG peak alpha frequency (PAF) has been shown to correlate positively with cognitive performance and to correlate negatively with age after childhood. The present pilot study used a double-blind controlled design to investigate whether training older individuals to increase PAF would result in improved cognitive performance. The results suggested that PAF NF improved cognitive processing speed and executive function, but that it had no clear effect on memory. In sum, the results suggest that the PAF NF protocol is a promising technique for improving selected cognitive functions.

Clin Neuropsychol. 2007 Jan;21(1):110-29.

Angelakis E, Stathopoulou S, Frymiare JL, Green DL, Lubar JF, Kounios J.

Department of Psychology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102-1192, USA.

Recent advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data acquisition and processing techniques have made real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) of localized brain areas feasible, reliable and less susceptible to artefacts. Previous studies have shown that healthy subjects learn to control local brain activity with operant training by using rtfMRI-based neurofeedback. In the present study, we investigated whether healthy subjects could voluntarily gain control over right anterior insular activity. Subjects were provided with continuously updated information of the target ROI's level of activation by visual feedback. All participants were able to successfully regulate BOLD-magnitude in the right anterior insular cortex within three sessions of 4 min each. Training resulted in a significantly increased activation cluster in the anterior portion of the right insula across sessions. An increased activity was also found in the left anterior insula but the percent signal change was lower than in the target ROI. Two different control conditions intended to assess the effects of non-specific feedback and mental imagery demonstrated that the training effect was not due to unspecific activations or non feedback-related cognitive strategies. Both control groups showed no enhanced activation across the sessions, which confirmed our main hypothesis that rtfMRI feedback is area-specific. The increased activity in the right anterior insula during training demonstrates that the effects observed are anatomically specific and self-regulation of right anterior insula only is achievable. This is the first group study investigating the volitional control of emotionally relevant brain region by using rtfMRI training and confirms that self-regulation of local brain activity with rtfMRI is possible.

Neuroimage. 2007 Apr 15;35(3):1238-46. Epub 2007 Jan 31.

Caria A, Veit R, Sitaram R, Lotze M, Weiskopf N, Grodd W, Birbaumer N.

Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, Eberhard-Karls-University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany. andrea.caria@uni-tuebingen.de